Sunday School Review: Basic Church History: Nicaea through the Middle Ages, Part 6

As we've seen, the early centuries of the Christian church were a period of explosive growth but significant challenge. Theological debates, doctrinal development, and waves of persecution shaped the church's emerging identity. Much of this development occurred around the Seven Ecumenical Councils held between 325 and 787 AD, where the church met to address pressing theological issues. Key figures rose to prominence during these times, defending the faith, shaping Christian doctrine, and guiding the church through tumultuous waters.

This week was largely a review for our group. We hit "pause," taking some time to remember several key figures associated with these times while also introducing a couple new ones. We remembered some highlights from their lives and notable contributions. While we did not cover new ground per se, it was helpful to pause, remember, and reflect on these dear saints of old.

If you’re new here and missed last week's review, you can find it here.

Polycarp of Smyrna (c. 69–155 AD)

Polycarp was one of the most important leaders of the early church. A disciple of the Apostle John, he lived when Christianity was still developing its identity amid persecution by the Roman Empire. Polycarp's martyrdom in 155 AD is one of the earliest recorded, and his unwavering faith in the face of death inspired generations of Christians.

Though he lived before the ecumenical councils, Polycarp's life and teaching emphasized faithfulness to the apostolic teaching. This emphasis became crucial during later doctrinal debates at councils like Nicaea (325 AD), where church leaders gathered to defend the New Testament's apostolic understanding of Christ's divinity.

Ignatius of Antioch (c. 35–107 AD)

Ignatius, a contemporary of Polycarp, was known for his strong emphasis on church unity and the authority of bishops. During his journey to martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote several letters to early Christian communities, urging them to remain unified in their faith.

Like Polycarp, Ignatius lived before the ecumenical councils, but his emphasis on church unity and church governmental structure laid the groundwork for the councils' decisions on ecclesiastical authority. At Nicaea (325 AD), the role of bishops in defining and maintaining orthodox belief became a key factor in confronting heresies like Arianism.

Irenaeus of Lyons (c. 130–202 AD)

Irenaeus played a vital role in defending the early church against heresies, especially Gnosticism, a belief system we covered last spring that denied the goodness of creation and emphasized secret knowledge. His monumental work, Against Heresies, stresses the unity of the Old and New Testaments and defends the Incarnation—the belief that God became flesh in Jesus Christ.

Irenaeus' defense of Christ's full humanity and divinity laid the groundwork for later councils like Nicaea (325 AD), where the church had to combat Arianism, a belief that denied Christ's full divinity.

Clement of Alexandria (c. 150–215 AD)

Clement was a philosopher-theologian who sought to harmonize Greek philosophy with Christian doctrine. His work aimed to show how the Christian faith could dialogue with the intellectual traditions of the ancient world, opening the door to intellectual engagement.

While Clement did not directly influence the ecumenical councils, his integration of philosophy and theology contributed to the intellectual context of Nicaea (325 AD) and subsequent councils, where philosophical reasoning helped clarify theological positions.

Tertullian (c. 155–240 AD)

Tertullian was a passionate and brilliant theologian who coined the term Trinity—one God in three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. He was one of the first Latin theologians of the Western church, and his writings on the nature of God deeply influenced Christian thought.

The Trinitarian theology Tertullian advanced became a cornerstone of the Council of Nicaea (325 AD), where the church formally declared that the Son is of the same substance (homoousios) as the Father, against Arian claims that Jesus was a created being.

Cyprian of Carthage (c. 200–258 AD)

Cyprian was the bishop of Carthage during a time of intense persecution and internal division within the church. He emphasized the importance of church unity and insisted on restoring those who renounced their faith under persecution through penance.

Cyprian's writings on the authority of bishops and the necessity of church unity influenced the structure and order established at Nicaea (325 AD), where the role of bishops was crucial in defending Christian orthodoxy.

Origen of Alexandria (c. 184–253 AD)

Origen was a highly influential theologian and scholar who sought to systematize Christian doctrine. Origen's intellectual rigor shaped many theological discussions in the early church, especially concerning the nature of Christ and the interpretation of Scripture. However, some of Origen's theological ideas were sub-Christian, like those concerning Christ's pre-existence and the nature of souls. The church discussed, evaluated, and condemned these in part at the Second Council of Constantinople (553 AD).

Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 260–339 AD)

Eusebius is known as the "Father of Church History" for his pioneering work documenting the early church's history. His writings preserved vital information about the early Christians, their struggles, and their faith.

Eusebius attended the Council of Nicaea (325 AD) and initially held a semi-Arian position, but he ultimately accepted the Nicene Creed (perhaps under some duress), which declared Christ's full divinity. His historical work provided essential context for understanding the development of church doctrine.

Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 296–373 AD)

Athanasius was one of the greatest defenders of Nicene orthodoxy. He opposed Arianism, the belief that Jesus was a created being, and tirelessly argued for Christ's full divinity. Even though he was exiled multiple times for his stance, Athanasius never wavered.

His most significant contribution was his defense of the Nicene Creed, particularly between Nicaea (325 AD) and the Council of Constantinople (381 AD), when the church reaffirmed Christ's full divinity.

Ambrose of Milan (c. 340–397 AD)

Ambrose, the bishop of Milan, was a staunch defender of Nicene orthodoxy. He opposed the Arian influence that persisted in parts of the Western church, especially within the Roman court. Ambrose also contributed to the development of Christian hymnody and significantly influenced Augustine of Hippo, one of the early church's greatest theologians.

Ambrose's defense of Christ's divinity was part of the wider Nicene legacy that would continue to shape discussions at the Council of Chalcedon (451 AD), where Christ's two natures, divine and human, were definitively articulated.

Interestingly, Ambrose of Milan had a significant relationship with Emperor Theodosius I, marked by mutual respect and a shared commitment to the Nicene faith. In 390 AD, after Theodosius ordered a brutal massacre of civilians in Thessalonica, Ambrose publicly condemned the emperor's actions, refusing him communion until he repented. This bold stance underscored the emerging principle of church authority over the state, as Ambrose asserted that even the emperor was subject to God's moral law. Theodosius ultimately heeded Ambrose's counsel, publicly repenting and demonstrating the potential for collaboration between church and state. This relationship is significant because it exemplifies how church leaders could influence political power, setting a precedent for the church's role in moral and ethical matters in society.

John Chrysostom (c. 347–407 AD)

John Chrysostom, known for his eloquent preaching, emphasized practical Christian living and ethical behavior. His powerful sermons earned him the title "Chrysostom" (Golden Mouth). His pastoral care and leadership in the church of Constantinople made him a key figure in shaping Christian thought.

Though Chrysostom was not directly tied to any ecumenical council, his theological and pastoral insights laid the groundwork for discussions at Chalcedon (451 AD), where the church formally affirmed the dual natures of Christ.

Jerome (c. 347–420 AD)

Jerome is best known for his translation of the Bible into Latin, the Vulgate, which became the authoritative text for the Western church for centuries. His mastery of Hebrew and Greek made his translation work foundational for Christian theology and biblical study.

Jerome's work provided the biblical foundation for later theological debates, particularly at Chalcedon (451 AD), where Christological issues were resolved using Scripture as the chief reference point.

Augustine of Hippo (354–430 AD)

Most consider Augustine's contributions to theology, particularly sin, grace, and salvation, unparalleled. His works, such as Confessions and The City of God, shaped Western Christianity's understanding of human nature and God's grace.

Though Augustine did not directly contribute to church councils, his teachings on original sin and grace were pivotal in condemning Pelagianism (the belief that humans have the innate ability to choose good or evil without the necessity of divine grace for salvation, contradicting the idea of original sin and the need for God's grace to enable moral action) at the Council of Ephesus (431 AD). His tremendous influence extended into debates on Christology at Chalcedon (451 AD).

Leo I (Pope Leo the Great) (c. 400–461 AD)

Pope Leo's Tome, a theological statement on the two natures of Christ, was crucial to the Council of Chalcedon (451 AD), where the church declared that Christ was fully divine and fully human, in one person.

Leo's leadership at Chalcedon set a precedent for the Western church's involvement in defining orthodox doctrine, a role that would continue throughout the history of the ecumenical councils.

Pope Leo played a defining role in consolidating the power of the Western church behind the Bishop of Rome during the fifth century. His rule marked a time when the church sought to assert its authority amid political instability and external threats, notably from the invading Huns. In 452 AD, Leo famously met with Attila the Hun, persuading him to withdraw from his advance on Rome, showcasing the pope's growing diplomatic influence and reinforcing the perception of the papacy as a moral and spiritual authority capable of negotiating with powerful rulers. Leo's efforts to define the pope's role as the chief pastor of the universal church laid the foundation for the future authority of the papacy and its role in Western Christendom.

Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 329–390 AD)

Gregory, one of the Cappadocian Fathers, was instrumental in defending the divinity of the Holy Spirit and developing Trinitarian theology. His deep theological reflections helped the church understand the mystery of the Trinity.

Gregory's work was key at the First Council of Constantinople (381 AD), where the full divinity of the Holy Spirit was affirmed, completing the Nicene Creed as we know it today.

Maximus the Confessor (c. 580–662 AD)

Maximus defended the church's teaching on the two wills of Christ, human and divine. His courageous defense of orthodox Christology against Monothelitism (the belief that Christ had only one will) eventually led to his torture and exile.

At the Third Council of Constantinople (681 AD), the church formally vindicated Maximus. It affirmed his position that Christ, being fully human and fully divine, had both human and divine wills in harmony.

John of Damascus (c. 675–749 AD)

John of Damascus was a key defender of the use of icons in Christian worship. He argued that because Christ became incarnate, depicting him in sacred art was appropriate. His defense of icons became a cornerstone at the Second Council of Nicaea (787 AD), where the church formally restored the use of icons in worship, rejecting the iconoclasts who sought to destroy religious imagery.

Conclusion

Through their theological contributions, courageous leadership, and steadfast defense of orthodoxy, these early church figures shaped the Christian faith during the crucial period of the ecumenical councils. Each council addressed vital questions about the nature of Christ, the Trinity, and the role of the church in preserving and proclaiming the faith. The legacy of these leaders continues to impact the church today as we stand on their work, though ultimately rooted in the truth of God's revelation in Jesus Christ.

Questions for Review

1. The early church figures highlighted—such as Polycarp, Ignatius, and Athanasius—faced intense opposition and, in some cases, martyrdom. How does their faithfulness inspire us today, especially in situations where standing for the truth comes at a personal cost?
2. The ecumenical councils worked to define critical doctrines, such as Christ’s two natures and the Trinity. Why is precise language and theological clarity so important in the church’s teaching, and how can we ensure this remains a priority in our own context?
3. Figures like Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus defended aspects of Christian worship, including the divinity of the Holy Spirit and the use of icons. How can we balance a robust theological foundation with sensitivity to how cultural and historical contexts shape worship practices?
4. The role of the Bishop of Rome, as seen in the leadership of figures like Pope Leo I, grew significantly during this time. What lessons can we learn about the relationship between church authority and political power, and how should the church navigate this relationship today?
5. Many early church leaders, such as Tertullian and Jerome, made substantial contributions but also held views that the church later critiqued. How can we appreciate their legacy while acknowledging their limitations, and what does this teach us about humility in the pursuit of truth?

Resources

Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1995).

Justo L. González, The Story of Christianity, Vol. 1: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation (New York: HarperCollins, 1984).

B.K. Kuiper, The Church in History (Grand Rapids:L Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001).

Unless otherwise indicated, all Scripture quotations are from The ESV® Bible (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved.