Sunday School Review: Basic Church History: Nicaea through the Middle Ages, Part 4

Like the continuing tensions after the Council of Nicaea, the aftermath of the First Council of Constantinople (381 AD) failed to provide a neat resolution to its theological conflicts. While formally signaling the end of the Arian controversy, Constantinople considered and occasioned the rise of new Christological debates challenging the church's unity. At the heart of these debates were key figures like Apollinarius and Nestorius and contested terms like Theotokos and Christotokos.

If you’re new here and missed last week's review, you can find it here.

Apollinarius and Apollinarianism

Apollinarius of Laodicea was a well-respected bishop and theologian known for his staunch defense of Christ's divinity against Arianism. However, his attempt to articulate the union between Christ's divine and human natures led to another theological error—what we now call Apollinarianism in his rather dubious honor.

Apollinarius taught that in Jesus Christ, the divine Logos replaced a rational human soul. In his view, Christ had a human body and a "sensitive" soul, but his rational mind was entirely divine. While Apollinarius seemed intent on safeguarding Christ's divinity, his teaching created a problem in the other direction—a functional denial of Christ's true humanity.

The implications of Apollinarianism were significant for the early church. If Christ lacked a fully human mind, how could He represent humanity in His redemptive work? For instance, Hebrews 2:17 insists that Christ had to be made like us "in every respect" to be a faithful high priest and accomplish our salvation. Apollinarius's view of Christ as less than fully human jeopardized this biblical truth.

The First Council of Constantinople (381 AD) not only reiterated Nicaea's condemnation of Arianism; it also condemned Apollinarianism, affirming Christ's full humanity alongside His full divinity. 

Nestorius and Nestorianism

In the years following Constantinople, another Christological debate erupted, this time over how to understand the relationship between Christ's divine and human natures. The key figure in this controversy was Nestorius, the bishop of Constantinople.

Like Apollinarius, Nestorius' motivations seemed noble. He sought to safeguard the distinction between Christ's two natures. His intentions were orthodox, but his theology became problematic because he tended to separate Christ's humanity and divinity too much, as though they were two distinct persons loosely connected in one body. Nestorius's critics accused him of teaching that Christ was, in effect, two persons—one human, one divine—united in a single body. This view, later termed Nestorianism, undermined the unity of Christ's person and risked compromising the truth (and admitted mystery) of the Incarnation.

Theotokos and Christotokos

One of the most heated controversies associated with Nestorianism was the use of the term Theotokos ("God-bearer") to describe Mary. This term had long been used in Christian worship and liturgy to affirm that Mary, as the mother of Jesus, gave birth to one who is fully God. For Nestorius, however, the term suggested that Mary was the mother of Christ's divine nature. Therefore, he preferred the term Christotokos ("Christ-bearer"), emphasizing that Mary gave birth to the human nature of Christ.

But for the defenders of orthodox Christology, this was not just a matter of semantics. If Christ is one person, fully God and fully man, then Mary gave birth to that one person, not to a part of Him. By rejecting the term Theotokos, Nestorius appeared to separate Christ's divinity and humanity in a way that threatened the unity of His person.

The Council of Ephesus (431 AD)

The controversy surrounding Nestorius's teaching became so heated that it led to convening the Council of Ephesus in 431 AD. The council, led by Cyril of Alexandria, condemned Nestorius's teachings as heretical. In defending the orthodox position, the council affirmed the full unity of Christ's person. Jesus Christ is one person with two natures, divine and human, fully united without confusion or division. 

The council also upheld the continued use of Theotokos to describe Mary, not to elevate Mary herself but to preserve the truth that the one born of her was truly God incarnate. This affirmation was critical for safeguarding the awe-inspiring reality of the Incarnation: that in Jesus Christ, God became man, not merely united with man.

For those of us in the evangelical tradition, the Council of Ephesus holds great significance. It stands as a key moment in the church's articulation of the mystery of the Incarnation, a doctrine central to the gospel itself. We hold to the truth that Christ must be fully God and man for His redemptive work to be sufficient and effective. 

If Christ were only divine, He could not have truly taken on our humanity to atone for our sins. If He were merely human, He could not bear the infinite weight of God's wrath or mediate between God and man. The Council of Ephesus ensured that the church would continue to confess the glorious mystery of the God-man, the eternal Word, who "became flesh and dwelt among us" (John 1:14).

While we do not venerate Mary as some traditions do, we understand the importance of affirming that the one born of her was the eternal Son of God. Properly understood, the title Theotokos protects the truth of the Incarnation and directs our worship to Christ, not to Mary.

Conclusion

The aftermath of the First Council of Constantinople and the Council of Ephesus demonstrates the early church's diligent defense of the gospel in the face of Christological heresies. Whether confronting Apollinarianism's denial of Christ's full humanity or Nestorianism's division of His person, these councils served to protect the biblical doctrine of the Incarnation. As heirs of the Protestant evangelical tradition, these debates underscore the importance of a robust Christology that preserves the gospel message: that in Christ, God became man so that we might be reconciled to God through Him.

As we look back on these pivotal moments, we're reminded of God's faithfulness in preserving His truth throughout church history. And as we continue to proclaim the gospel, we stand in the line of those early defenders of the faith who refused to compromise on the person and work of Christ. Stand firm, then. Keep the faith.

Grace and peace, 

Kevin

Resources

Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1995).

Justo L. González, The Story of Christianity, Vol. 1: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation (New York: HarperCollins, 1984).

Unless otherwise indicted, all Scripture quotations are from The ESV® Bible (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved.